In 1871, local wine merchant and inventor Alfred Speer developed an idea that would revolutionize the way people navigated New York City. He proposed an “endless-travelling sidewalk” that would be elevated above Broadway. The system involved three moving wooden belts, each moving faster than the last, and even included cars where people could sit and smoke as they were transported around the city.

Due to lack of funding, Speer’s sidewalk never got made, but the idea didn’t die there. The world’s first-ever moving walkway debuted at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, and a similar system would receive acclaim at the Exposition Universelle in 1900.

The Paris walkway, dubbed the trottoir roulant, ran in a circle around the fair and nearly seven million visitors were reported to have used it. One woman even gave birth while in transit on the walkway, prompting her to christen the child Trottoir Roulant Benost.

New York returned to the idea of a moving sidewalk in 1902, but this time it was under much more serious consideration. According to New Scientist, New Yorkers were fed up of the “daily torture” of the rush-hour congestion on the Brooklyn Bridge. The answer, according to the city’s Bridge Commissioner Gustav Lindenthal, was to build a high-speed moving sidewalk across the bridge.

This new plan involved a looping system with four walkways, the fastest of which would contain benches so people could be comfortable as they were shuttled across the river. The plan was debated in the city’s newspapers up to a year later. In the May 8, 1903 edition of The New York Times, it was reported that the scheme would be too expensive to implement, and users would need to be charged five-cent fares to make it feasible, an unheard of amount for a commute at the time.

Although in October the Times claimed the rapid transit commission moved for “immediate adoption” of moving sidewalks, the plans were never carried out, possibly due to the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Commission, which had a monopoly on public transport at the time.

There were other attempts to bring moving walkways to New York over the years, including one proposal in 1910 to replace the subway system with an underground version of the Brooklyn Bridge plan. There was also a plan to introduce it to the Williamsburg Bridge, Wall Street, and an elevated version of the subway.

Ultimately, the sidewalks of New York never moved, and the technology today is now most often seen in airports. But the trend survived. Today’s automation in personal transport can be tracked all the way back to Speer’s idea for Manhattan’s sidewalks, and the goal is the same: to minimize traffic and organize the mass of people moving in all different directions. For New Yorkers today who see the same problems as Speer did in 1871, it’s been a long time coming.

https://youtu.be/-X0xoUki128

Império Tártaro ®️

FREE ENERGY

Aether

In physics, aether (also known as ether theories) propose the existence of a medium, a space-filling substance or field as a transmission medium for the propagation of electromagnetic or gravitational forces.

Since the development of special relativity, theories using a substantial aether fell out of use in modern physics, and are now replaced by more abstract models.

This early modern aether has little in common with the aether of classical elements from which the name was borrowed.

The assorted theories embody the various conceptions of this medium and substance.

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Historical models

Isaac Newton suggests the existence of an aether in the Third Book of Opticks (1st ed. 1704; 2nd ed. 1718):

"Doth not this aethereal medium in passing out of water, glass, crystal, and other compact and dense bodies in empty spaces, grow denser and denser by degrees, and by that means refract the rays of light not in a point, but by bending them gradually in curve lines?

...Is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies of the Sun, stars, planets and comets, than in the empty celestial space between them?

And in passing from them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the bodies; every body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer?"

In the 19th century, luminiferous aether (or ether), meaning light-bearing aether, was a theorized medium for the propagation of light. James Clerk Maxwell developed a model to explain electric and magnetic phenomena using the aether, a model that led to what are now called Maxwell's equations and the understanding that light is an electromagnetic wave.

However, a series of increasingly complex experiments had been carried out in the late 1800s like the Michelson–Morley experiment in an attempt to detect the motion of Earth through the aether, and had failed to do so.

A range of proposed aether-dragging theories could explain the null result but these were more complex, and tended to use arbitrary-looking coefficients and physical assumptions.

Joseph Larmor discussed the aether in terms of a moving magnetic field caused by the acceleration of electrons.

Hendrik Lorentz and George Francis FitzGerald offered within the framework of Lorentz ether theory an explanation of how the Michelson–Morley experiment could have failed to detect motion through the aether. However, the initial Lorentz theory predicted that motion through the aether would create a birefringence effect, which Rayleigh and Brace tested and failed to find (Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace).

All of those results required the full application of the Lorentz transformation by Lorentz and Joseph Larmor in 1904.

Summarizing the results of Michelson, Rayleigh and others, Hermann Weyl would later write that the aether had "betaken itself to the land of the shades in a final effort to elude the inquisitive search of the physicist".

In addition to possessing more conceptual clarity, Albert Einstein's 1905 special theory of relativity could explain all of the experimental results without referring to an aether at all. This eventually led most physicists to conclude that the earlier notion of a luminiferous aether was not a useful concept.

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Other models

In later years there have been a few individuals who advocated a neo-Lorentzian approach to physics, which is Lorentzian in the sense of positing an absolute true state of rest that is undetectable and which plays no role in the predictions of the theory.

(No violations of Lorentz covariance have ever been detected, despite strenuous efforts.)

Hence these theories resemble the 19th century aether theories in name only.

For example, the founder of quantum field theory, Paul Dirac, stated in 1951 in an article in Nature, titled "Is there an Aether?" that "we are rather forced to have an aether".

However, Dirac never formulated a complete theory, and so his speculations found no acceptance by the scientific community.

By contrast, at the very beginning of the 21st century, Dr. Charles Kenneth Thornhill outlined a non-singular ethereal cosmology in which he identified dark matter as ether - a medium pervading the universe, through which all electromagnetic waves and gravitational forces are propagated.

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Quantum vacuum

Quantum mechanics can be used to describe spacetime as being non-empty at extremely small scales, fluctuating and generating particle pairs that appear and disappear incredibly quickly. It has been suggested by some such as Paul Diract hat this quantum vacuum may be the equivalent in modern physics of a particulate aether. However, Dirac's aether hypothesis was motivated by his dissatisfaction with quantum electrodynamics, and it never gained support from the mainstream scientific community.

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Physicist Robert B. Laughlin wrote:

It is ironic that Einstein's most creative work, the general theory of relativity, should boil down to conceptualizing space as a medium when his original premise [in special relativity] was that no such medium existed [..]

The word 'ether' has extremely negative connotations in theoretical physics because of its past association with opposition to relativity.

This is unfortunate because, stripped of these connotations, it rather nicely captures the way most physicists actually think about the vacuum. . . .

Relativity actually says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of matter pervading the universe, only that any such matter must have relativistic symmetry. [..] It turns out that such matter exists.

About the time relativity was becoming accepted, studies of radioactivity began showing that the empty vacuum of space had spectroscopic structure similar to that of ordinary quantum solids and fluids.

Subsequent studies with large particle accelerators have now led us to understand that space is more like a piece of window glass than ideal Newtonian emptiness. It is filled with 'stuff' that is normally transparent but can be made visible by hitting it sufficiently hard to knock out a part.

The modern concept of the vacuum of space, confirmed every day by experiment, is a relativistic ether. But we do not call it this because it is taboo.

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Pilot waves

Louis de Broglie stated, "Any particle, ever isolated, has to be imagined as in continuous "energetic contact" with a hidden medium."

However, as de Broglie pointed out, this medium "could not serve as a universal reference medium, as this would be contrary to relativity theory."

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General relativity

Einstein's views on the aether

Albert Einstein sometimes used the word aether for the gravitational field within general relativity, but the only similarity of this relativistic aether concept with the classical aether models lies in the presence of physical properties in space, which can be identified through geodesics.

As historians such as John Stachel argue, Einstein's views on the "new aether" are not in conflict with his abandonment of the aether in 1905.

As Einstein himself pointed out, no "substance" and no state of motion can be attributed to that new aether.

Einstein's use of the word "aether" found little support in the scientific community, and played no role in the continuing development of modern physics.

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Quantum electrodynamics

In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics.

In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved.

QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.

In technical terms, QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Richard Feynman called it "the jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen.

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Luminiferous aether

Luminiferous aether or ether

("luminiferous", meaning "light-bearing") was the postulated medium for the propagation of light.

It was invoked to explain the ability of the apparently wave-based light to propagate through "empty space" (a vacuum), something that waves should not be able to do.

The assumption of a spatial plenum of luminiferous aether, rather than a spatial vacuum, provided the theoretical medium that was required by wave theories of light.

The aether hypothesis was the topic of considerable debate throughout its history, as it required the existence of an invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects.

As the nature of light was explored, especially in the 19th century, the physical qualities required of an aether became increasingly contradictory. By the late 1800s, the existence of the aether was being questioned, although there was no physical theory to replace it.

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The negative outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887)suggested that the aether did not exist, a finding that was confirmed in subsequent experiments through the 1920s.

This led to considerable theoretical work to explain the propagation of light without an aether.

A major breakthrough was the theory of relativity, which could explain why the experiment failed to see aether, but was more broadly interpreted to suggest that it was not needed.

The Michelson-Morley experiment, along with the blackbody radiator and photoelectric effect, was a key experiment in the development of modern physics, which includes both relativity and quantum theory, the latter of which explains the particle-like nature of light.

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Particles vs. waves

Main article: Wave–particle duality

In the 17th century, Robert Boyle was a proponent of an aether hypothesis.

According to Boyle, the aether consists of subtle particles, one sort of which explains the absence of vacuum and the mechanical interactions between bodies, and the other sort of which explains phenomena such as magnetism (and possibly gravity) that are, otherwise, inexplicable on the basis of purely mechanical interactions of macroscopic bodies, "though in the ether of the ancients there was nothing taken notice of but a diffused and very subtle substance; yet we are at present content to allow that there is always in the air a swarm of steams moving in a determinate course between the north pole and the south".

Christiaan Huygens's Treatise on Light (1690) hypothesized that light is a wave propagating through an aether.

He and Isaac Newton could only envision light waves as being longitudinal, propagating like sound and other mechanical waves in fluids. However, longitudinal waves necessarily have only one form for a given propagation direction, rather than two polarizations like a transverse wave.

Thus, longitudinal waves can not explain birefringence, in which two polarizations of light are refracted differently by a crystal.

In addition, Newton rejected light as waves in a medium because such a medium would have to extend everywhere in space, and would thereby "disturb and retard the Motions of those great Bodies" (the planets and comets) and thus "as it [light's medium] is of no use, and hinders the Operation of Nature, and makes her languish, so there is no evidence for its Existence, and therefore it ought to be rejected".

Isaac Newton contended hat light is made up of numerous small particles.

This can explain such features as light's ability to travel in straight lines and reflect off surfaces.

Newton imagined light particles as non-spherical "corpuscles", with different "sides" that give rise to birefringence. But the particle theory of light can not satisfactorily explain refraction and diffraction.

To explain refraction, Newton's Third Book of Opticks (1st ed. 1704, 4th ed. 1730) postulated an "aethereal medium" transmitting vibrations faster than light, by which light, when overtaken, is put into "Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission", which caused refraction and diffraction.

Newton believed that these vibrations were related to heat radiation:

Is not the Heat of the warm Room convey'd through the vacuum by the Vibrations of a much subtiler Medium than Air, which after the Air was drawn out remained in the Vacuum?

And is not this Medium the same with that Medium by which Light is refracted and reflected, and by whose Vibrations Light communicates Heat to Bodies, and is put into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission?

In contrast to the modern understanding that heat radiation and light are both electromagnetic radiation, Newton viewed heat and light as two different phenomena.

He believed heat vibrations to be excited "when a Ray of Light falls upon the Surface of any pellucid Body"

He wrote,

"I do not know what this Aether is", but that if it consists of particles then they must be expand itself...

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End of aether

Aether theory was dealt another blow when the Galilean transformation and Newtonian dynamics were both modified by Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, giving the mathematics of Lorentzian electrodynamics a new, "non-aether" context.

Unlike most major shifts in scientific thought, special relativity was adopted by the scientific community remarkably quickly, consistent with Einstein's later comment that the laws of physics described by the Special Theory were "ripe for discovery" in 1905.

Max Planck's early advocacy of the special theory, along with the elegant formulation given to it by Hermann Minkowski, contributed much to the rapid acceptance of special relativity among working scientists.

Einstein based his theory on Lorentz's earlier work. Instead of suggesting that the mechanical properties of objects changed with their constant-velocity motion through an undetectable aether, Einstein proposed to deduce the characteristics that any successful theory must possess in order to be consistent with the most basic and firmly established principles, independent of the existence of a hypothetical aether.

He found that the Lorentz transformation must transcend its connection with Maxwell's equations, and must represent the fundamental relations between the space and time coordinates of inertial frames of reference.

In this way he demonstrated that the laws of physics remained invariant as they had with the Galilean transformation, but that light was now invariant as well.

With the development of the special theory of relativity, the need to account for a single universal frame of reference had disappeared – and acceptance of the 19th-century theory of a luminiferous aether disappeared with it.

For Einstein, the Lorentz transformation implied a conceptual change: that the concept of position in space or time was not absolute, but could differ depending on the observer's location and velocity.

Moreover, in another paper published the same month in 1905, Einstein made several observations on a then-thorny problem, the photoelectric effect.

In this work he demonstrated that light can be considered as particles that have a "wave-like nature". Particles obviously do not need a medium to travel, and thus, neither did light.

This was the first step that would lead to the full development of quantum mechanics, in which the wave-like nature and the particle-like nature of light are both considered as valid descriptions of light.

A summary of Einstein's thinking about the aether hypothesis, relativity and light quanta may be found in his 1909 (originally German) lecture "The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation".

Lorentz on his side continued to use the aether hypothesis. In his lectures of around 1911, he pointed out that what "the theory of relativity has to say ... can be carried out independently of what one thinks of the aether and the time". He commented that "whether there is an aether or not, electromagnetic fields certainly exist, and so also does the energy of the electrical oscillations" so that, "if we do not like the name of 'aether', we must use another word as a peg to hang all these things upon".

He concluded that "one cannot deny the bearer of these concepts a certain substantiality".

It should however be noted that on May 5th, 1920 Einstein gave an Address at the University of Leiden where he stated "More careful reflection teaches us however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether.

We may assume the existence of an ether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e. we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it.

We shall see later that this point of view, the conceivability of which I shall at once endeavour to make more intelligible by a somewhat halting comparison, is justified by the results of the general theory of relativity." and at the conclusion of his address states "Recapitulating, we may say that according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an ether.

According to the general theory of relativity space without ether is unthinkable;"

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References

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Theories_of_Aether_and_Electricity

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Ninth_Edition

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PDF

https://web.archive.org/web/20051227132715/http://maxwell.byu.edu/~spencerr/phys442/history.pdf

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_theories

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http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-lecture.html

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https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.73.416

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether

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PDF

https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1915-21-06/S0002-9904-1915-02631-5/S0002-9904-1915-02631-5.pdf

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Vril

The Coming Race is a novel by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, published anonymously in 1871. It has also been published as Vril, the Power of the Coming Race.(Transhumanism)

Some readers have believed the account of a superior subterranean master race and the energy-form called "Vril", at least in part; some theosophists, notably Helena Blavatsky, William Scott-Elliot, and Rudolf Steiner, accepted the book as based on occult truth, in part.

One 1960 book.

Império Tártaro ®️

TRANSLATIONS

Tartary

TARTARIA five MAGNI CHAMI IMPERIVM.

6. If he wants to destroy the Tartars, he must destroy many nations, and the same people are far away from each other.

For Tartary is now generally called whatever land lies between the Eastern Ocean, the Mangica River, and between the Northern Ocean and the Southern regions, China, the part of India outside the Ganges, the Sacos, the Laxarte (today Chefel) river, the Caffian Sea, and the marsh of the Meotidis; and I turned almost to the west of the Mofcos, because the Tartars had almost seized all these, and returned them to the same places.

Thus, according to the ancient writings, it included Sarmatia Afiatica, both Scythia, and the region of Serica (which today is a strong country called Cataio).

The name of these was in the year of the fall of the year 1200. it was first heard in Europe.

They are divided into groups, which the voice represents to them as an interviewer, or a multitude.

But as they inhabit various Provinces extending in length and breadth, so they do not all agree in manners or kind of life.

Men of quadrangular stature, wide faces, with crooked and sunken eyes, hideous beards, others of a rapid, strong body, bold mind, horses, and other animals, in every way, are fed by wild beasts; and they are afflicted with famines, and the horses, which they trust, tend to cut their veins, and drive away the famine with the blood of their hides.

And since they wander uncertainly, the faithful, the true princes of the Aretic Poles, whom the tongue of Seler fol, that is, an iron nail (tefte Sigifmundus ab Herberitein,) with cant, touch, and curfew, are willing to direct the fuum.

They do not remain in one place for a long time. There is no justice with them. They think that men are the most rapacious, namely, my poor fellows, as those who steal from strangers.

There was no gold or silver among them.

The Tartars, and their manners and rites, have been most accurately described by Sigismund from Herberstein.

See & Antonij Bonfi's Hungarian commentaries; M. Paulus Venetus, whom for a long time he kept alive among them.

Of their origin read Mathias à Michou Haythonus the Armenian; Calius Curion in hiftoria

Lefuite the Muslim and letters of Lacobius Nauarchus.

About the Tartars you also have something that should not be overlooked by Nicephorus.

book.18.cap.30.

47h

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Unraveling

REVIEWS

Hall of Records

"Hall of Records across a small valley behind the sculpted heads on Mount Rushmore."

Sculptor Gutzon Borglum, 1939 The Idea Gutzon Borglum had long dreamed of creating a written description to accompany the giant sculpture on Mount Rushmore.

The original idea for the memorial included a large inscription or entablature to be carved alongside the figures.

The entablature would describe the nine most important events in the history of the United States from 1776 to 1906 (From Washington to Roosevelt.

It was to be about 80 by 120 feet in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase. This plan failed for two critical reasons.

First, the text could not be made large enough to read at such a great distance. Also, after relocating the Jefferson head, that section of the mountain was needed for the Lincoln head. Because of these difficulties, another more lasting plan was developed. Location Borglum next planned to create a large room within the mountain. This chamber would hold the documents and artifacts most central to American democratic history.

The proposed large room, 80 by 100 feet was to be drilled into the north wall of the small canyon behind the faces. His scheme also called for an 800-foot granite stairway to reach the room.

The steps would begin near his studio, rise gradually to meet the canyon mouth behind Lincoln’s head, and then lead to the entrance of the great hall.

The Plan

The recesses inside this hall would house bronze and glass cabinets containing important historical documents, such as the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. Also included in the hall would be busts of famous Americans and a list of U.S. contributions to the world in science, industry and the arts. The entrance would be 20 feet high by 14 feet wide with cast glass doors opening into a higher chamber.

A bronze eagle, with a wingspread of 38 feet, would be placed above the door. Words inscribed over the eagle would read:

"America’s Onward March" and "The Hall of Records." Construction Construction of the hall took place between July 1938 and July 1939, when a 70-foot tunnel was blasted into the mountain.

It remains very rough cut, and tapers to a point at the back.

Work halted in 1939 when Congress directed that construction should be executed only on the faces. With Borglum’s death in 1941 and American involvement in World War II, all work on the memorial came to a close on October 31, 1941.

The Hall of Records Today Although Borglum’s grand scheme for the Hall of Records had to be abandoned, the idea remained. On August 9, 1998, Gutzon Borglum’s dream was completed when a repository of records was placed in the floor of the hall entry.

This repository consists of a teakwood box, inside a titanium vault, covered by a granite capstone. Etched on the capstone is the following quote by Gutzon Borglum:

"...let us place there, carved high, as close to heaven as we can, the words of our leaders, their faces, to show posterity what manner of men they were.

Then breathe a prayer that these records will endure until the wind and rain alone shall wear them away."

The repository contains sixteen porcelain enamel panels. Inscribed on the panels is the story of how Mount Rushmore came to be carved, who carved it, the reasons for selecting the four presidents depicted on the mountain and a short history of the United States.

This repository is not accessible to visitors but is left as a record for people thousands of years from now who may wonder how and why Mount Rushmore was carved.

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